The Reform of Korean Buddhism
Korean Buddhism with its major sect of Chan ran the same course of development and decline1 as in China until the annexation by- the Japanese in the year 2453/1910. Then, under Japanese rule (2453-2488/1910-1945), Korean Buddhism underwent a great change.
The Japanese brought with them Japanese Buddhism together with the beliefs, practices and activities of the different sects. They set up their temples and introduced social and educational programmes. Buddhism seemed to be restored to life. But, to the Korean Buddhists, the Japanese brought also the worst corrupting element, that is, the practice of married monkhood which they encouraged by policy and which completely destroyed the Korean Buddhist tradition.
Therefore, with the end of Japanese rule, leading Buddhists united in a movement to purify monastic life, to return the monks to the proper monastic discipline, and to restore their religious life and traditions. They established a well-organized celibate order of Korean Buddhist monks called the Chogye Order of Korean Buddhism and created a hierarchy of administration headed by a Patriarch or chief executive. From its headquarters at the Chogye temple, the Korean Sangha supervises all provincial councils that administer its 1,700 temples1 in the 9 provinces of South Korea.
The Korean Sangha is dedicated to education. The Dongguk Buddhist University, which in 2509/1966 had an enrolment of about 6,000 students, is open both to monks and to lay students. The Korean Sangha also operates independent colleges, high schools, middle schools and kindergartens of its own. Monks have been sent to pursue their studies in other Buddhist countries. There has been an increasing interest in Theravada Buddhism during recent years. Besides sending Korean monks to study in Theravada countries, the Korean Sangha welcomes Theravada ordination in its own country. In 2516/1973, a group of Theravada monks from Thailand went on invitation to hold an ordination ceremony in Seoul, admitting about 40 Korean monks into the Theravada Order.
Buddhism in Modern Japan
PERSECUTION AND THE MODERNIZATION OF TRADITIONAL BUDDHISM
Modern Japanese Buddhism began as a reaction against the persecution under the Shinto nationalism of the Meiji Restoration of 2411/1868. Under the persecution, Buddhist statues, scriptures and decorations were taken out of Shinto temples and set on fire or thrown into the water for the purpose of purifying the Shinto temples and separating Buddhism from Shinto. This was carried out at the time of the opening of Japan to the outside world. Stimulated by the danger, the Buddhists united in common action to resist and took steps to modernize. Leading monks of the various sects adopted a modern system of education and gave modern education to the younger monks. They founded schools and universities or reorganized their old temple schools and transformed them into modern Buddhist universities.
An example of this development can be found in Otani University of the Shin School in Kyoto. This institution was founded in 2198/1655 as a study centre. After the opening of Japan, alterations and improvements were made in the curriculum and it was transformed into a modern university in 2448/1905. Another example is Ryokoku University of the Jodo School in Kyoto, which was founded as a temple school in 2182/1639, became subject to Western influences in the Meiji period, and was recognized as a university in 2465/1922. All the great sects of Japanese Buddhism have developed their own universities. In Kyoto, the Rinzai branch of the Zen School operates Hana-Zono University, the Jodo School runs Bukkyo University, and the Shingon Sect owns Shuchiin University. The Shingon Sect has another university
on Mount Koya called Koyasan University. In Tokyo, Komazawa University of the Soto branch of Zen Buddhism was founded as a temple school in 2302/1759 and raised to the status of a university in 2425/1882. Also in Tokyo are Rissho University of the Nichiren Sect and Taisho University which serves the Jodo, the Tendai and the Shingon sects. Kyoto Women's University of the Shin Sect in Kyoto has been designed specially for the education of women.
Japanese Buddhist education still maintains the traditional close connection between study and meditation. Besides training monks and priests for their special roles, Buddhist universities offer courses to laymen both in the field of Buddhism and religious studies and in the field of secular studies. A number of research institutes specializing in Buddhism or in oriental studies in general have also been founded, such as the Nippon Buddhist Research Association and the IndogakuBukkyogakukai (The Japanese Association of Indian and Buddhist Studies). With modern educational and research methods, these Buddhist universities and research institutes have been active in their task of preserving the great intellectual heritage of Buddhism, advancing Buddhist studies, and keeping for Buddhism a significant place in the modern intellectual life of the nation.
It should be noted that the persecution under Meiji Restoration could not destroy Buddhism, though its status was much affected. Moreover, the persecution did not last long and Buddhism shortly began to recover its strength. Besides reaction on the part of the monks, there was a closely related reaction against Europeanization and Christianity, which came about some time after the opening up of Japanese life to European thought, culture and religion, and which led to the reaffirming of the national religious traditions. Buddhism was then revalued as its teachings were found to be compatible with new discoveries and theories of modern science, such as Darwin's theory of evolution. Buddhism was thus reaffirmed and its status was restored. In spite of this, however, its influence on the national life of Japan was never as strong as in the earlier ages. Generally speaking, the numerous sects were still attached to traditionalism and their main efforts were directed toward maintaining their continuity in the midst of growing secularism and the non-religious attitude of the intelligentsia. As a desirable effect, Buddhist monasteries and temples have become the stronghold for preserving the Buddhist cultural tradition and for resisting the secularizing elements of westernization. As an undesirable effect, the scientific study of Buddhist philosophy which made remarkable early progress slowed down and became confined to leading Buddhist scholars, far beyond the understanding of the public and the interest of the highly westernized intellectuals.
Another important development after the Meiji Restoration was the practice of married priesthood. Under the disestablishment of Buddhism when support was lacking, monks were forced to struggle to earn their living and to maintain their temples. They became lax in monastic discipline. Moreover, there was a decree issued by the Meiji government allowing the clergy of all sects to marry. Today, not only priests of the Shin and the Nichiren sects but nearly all Japanese priests live married lives. Except for young monks under training, there are very few celibate monks in Japan.
Among the traditional sects, the Zen, Shin and Nichiren sects are most prominent and most advanced in activities directed towards regaining their lost position. Through their efforts, Japanese Buddhism has not only made significant scholarly achievements, become energetically involved in education, social work and humanitarian activities, and achieved an efficient confrontation with Western philosophy and modern intellectual currents, but has also returned to the West with Buddhist thought and ideas valued by and stimulating to the Western mind, and played a leading part in international Buddhist activities. The three sects can count among their followers, both priests and laymen, some of the ablest thinkers of the day. In the field of international collaboration, more, or at least not fewer, names of Japanese scholars can be found than those of any other Buddhist country. Numerous Japanese clergymen engage in missionary activities in many countries, especially on the American continent, while a number of Japanese professors are conducting courses in Buddhist studies in American universities. More and more books and articles on Buddhism are being published in Western languages. Through his writings and lectures, Dr. D.T. Suzuki, a Japanese Zen priest and scholar, has exercised on Western thought and culture a deeper and wider influence than any other individual Buddhist.
